Gene Schembri – coachdev.org

What is assessment anyway?

Part 1 - Reimagining assessment and course delivery

What if we expanded our view of assessment? What if assessment and learning were intermingled so that the two were indistinguishable? In this view, assessment IS learning and learning IS assessment.

Imagine coach learning and development where CD observations of coaches in action, followed by supportive conversations, were part and parcel of the learning process. From time-to-time peers would be part of the conversation too, and coaches would learn and use the skills of review and reflection.
Imagine too, that this change in approach provided an alternative to traditional assessment.

This view of coach learning and development requires a mindset change in the way we go about preparing coaches. Particularly in accreditation / certification courses. Is a different mental model of what coach development and assessment looks like required? And would it have its own set of challenges to address?

Toby Doyle from New Zealand Cricket has been leading the charge encapsulated in the latest iteration of the NZ Cricket Coaching System with a range of initiatives, some of which are discussed below.

In England, Liam McCarthy at Leeds Beckett University has done much work on rethinking assessment in coach development (1). His propositions have added weight as they are grounded in his collaborations with major sporting organisations. His work is described in a recent book of perspectives on assessment and development from around the world (2).

ASSESSMENT & LEARNING INTERMINGLED

A personalised coaching experience approach is dependent on courses paying far more attention to the HOW of coaching. That is putting COACHING PRACTICE front and centre. See an earlier article in coachdev by the pioneer coach educator Eric Worthington here.

COACHING PRACTICE

‘Coaching practice’ is just that – a coach applies their knowledge to a simulated or real-world coaching task.

Coaching involves finding the best combination of a developmentally favourable coaching environment, the task at hand and the athlete’s needs. While remembering all along that coaching is both a technical and relational challenge. The coach’s teaching skills are the magic that brings it all together.

The graphic opposite is an attempt to capture the essence of a coaches role when guiding coaching experience sessions. (This model is expanded in Part 2).

AN ALTERNATIVE MODEL: KEY FEATURES in BRIEF

A key feature is the increased time and emphasis on the HOW of coaching through coaching practice.

It starts with course DESIGN. Plan for a major part of the coaches’ learning taking place on-the-job. This should be guided by a trained CD. If that is difficult, ramp up the amount of time (> 50%) spent on micro-coaching activities within the F2F course. Sufficient time should be allocated to discussion and debrief / reflection.
CONTEXT is important, so some guided coaching in the coach’s club or organisation is of great value.
The DISTRIBUTION of the LEARNING OVER TIME is just as important (maybe more so) than learning in a single block of time (3).
Ensure there is sufficient time for coaching practice with a strong emphasis on the HOW of coaching – organising, reading the play, and adapting instruction. As confidence grows coaches sharpen their own learn-to-learn skills including reflection and self-regulation. See Kirsi Hämaläinen’s Top 4 CD Tips here (Point #1).

THE SKILLS to be LEARNED DETERMINE the ‘THEORY’ to be COVERED

COACHING KNOWLEDGE is important, but it needs to be in the right proportion, delivered in the most efficient means and reinforced in hands-on settings. Theory teaching in many courses does not pass this test of application to a real-coaching situation. The answer is not to allocate more time to theory.

ONLINE LEARNING is an efficient way to deliver the ‘theory’. It should contain a mix of surface and deep knowledge challenges, and preferably use FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT methods to deepen learning and ensure some quality control.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

The aim of formative assessment is to provide both the learner and CD with feedback about progress and next steps in the learning. Formative assessments are low stakes activities that are integral to the learning.

Other TECHNOLOGY ASSISTED LEARNING methods can complement the online learning or for some topics, replace it. Webinars that are discussion based (and not lectures) can be helpful.
Too much ‘theory’ is worse than not enough. Emphasise NEED to KNOW stuff over NICE to KNOW stuff. Use the simple test: Will the coach be able to see the connection between the theory and their practice AND use it?

REQUIREMENTS for the ALTERNATIVE APPROACH

Listed below are essential ingredients for a successful personalised coaching experience approach that will stand up to scrutiny:

Multiple coaching experience sessions separated in time are required to facilitate real learning and for the CD to make judgements about capability.
Formal club or organisation support in practice guided by a trained coach educator / mentor further enhances the quality of the experience and can be an integral part of accreditation / certification programs (Access the Australian Sports Commission Supporting Coaches in Practice course here).
Well-structured partner and group work (4) that provides opportunities for peer-to-peer teaching and social learning can have a significant positive impact on learning. (5)
The CD / coach educator / mentor should be trained in the skills required to guide growth-related conversations that flow out of in situ learning. (For more information, see here.)
Appropriate CD / coach records of achievement should be kept. This process should be as low key as possible with the emphasis on GROWTH and not ASSESSMENT.
Coaches should become increasingly proficient at being able to articulate the task at hand, its purpose, ‘what good looks like’, and be able to reflect on their own thoughts, feelings and behaviours flowing out of the coaching experience challenges.
The personalised coaching experience approach demands a shift in time allocated to hands-on coaching (micro-coaching or supported practice).
It is important that essential (need to know to coach) ‘theory’ is provided through well designed technology assisted learning (e.g., online learning, webinars, etc). This may mean a reduction in time given to non-experiential learning.
The most powerful way to deepen knowledge is to do something with it. That is to apply it in practice. CDs have an important role in making the links to practice.

HOW WILL WE KNOW if the COACH is CAPABLE?

The personalised coaching experience approach described here has to stand up to scrutiny. Is it contributing to the development of ‘job-ready’ coaches?

By the way, much of what passes for ‘rigorous’ assessment doesn’t do all that good a job of assessing coaches’ coaching capability anyway! Something that has been described as the ‘illusion of competency’ (6).

But is this also true of the personalised coaching experience approach described here? Is it really all rainbows and unicorns for the alternative described here?

ASSESSMENT WITHOUT ASSESSMENT

This approach of closely integrating development and assessment involves minute-to-minute observations and judgements that are the basis of conversations. The conversations help to flag ‘what to do next’. Coaching capability is enhanced through this iterative approach. It is a kind of Assessment without Assessment where the focus is on learning and development.

The personalised approach allows the CD to cut some slack for different rates of learning. Provided the ‘must haves’ are covered, some variation in learning outcomes can be tolerated.

More than 50 years ago Lee Cronbach (7) defined assessment as a procedure for drawing inferences. It is easy to see how the process of observation > judgement > discussion fits this definition without the need for a summative assessment.

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

A summative assessment takes place at the end of a learning period. It measures what the learner has learned. This may lead to a grade or be used to affirm mastery of the learning.

BRING PEOPLE ALONG WITH YOU

It is important to bring people along whenever change is proposed (See Dawn Ho’s post on change here). Coaches may initially be sceptical of a new or different approach. Administrators with a concern for risk management may be sceptical if the approach is different from what they know. Funding agencies and other peak organisations may also need convincing.

Time should be taken to explain how the approach may be different from other learning experiences coaches may have had. Coaches may expectations of being told what to do. This calls for some explanation of the how and why of more collaborative learning approaches.

Developing learn-to-learn skills may be the most important thing we can help coaches with.

WHAT ABOUT a HYBRID APPROACH?

A hybrid approach, mixing the personalised coaching experience approach with some endpoint (summative) assessment might act as a useful transition strategy for those wanting to dip a toe.

Even if your Sport’s assessment requirements are heavily weighted toward a summative assessment approach, the ideas outlined above which are based on trained personnel observing, supporting, and offering guidance through conversations, is still available to you. What are you waiting for?

Good luck! 😊

REFERENCES

McCarthy, L., Vangrunderbeek, H., & Piggott, D. (2022). Principles of Good Assessment Practice in Coach Education: An Initial Proposal. International Sports Coaching Journal, (9)2, 252-262.
McCarthy, Liam. (2025). Sport Coach Education, Development, and Assessment (International Perspectives). Routledge, New York, and London. (See chapters at: p1, 62, 75).
InnerDrive blog. What is the Spacing Effect? Available here.
InnerDrive blog. 10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Classroom Group Work. Available here.
Grant, Adam. (2023). Hidden Potential (The Science of Achieving Greater Things). Penguin Random House UK.
In this highly readable book, Adam Grant writes about maximising group intelligence by bringing people together to solve a problem. The smartest teams are not the ones with biggest IQs, but the ones with pro-social qualities enabling them to effectively collaborate. (See pp. 179,181, 188, 198)
Collins, D., Burke, V., Martindale, A & Cruickshank, A. (2014). The Illusion of Competency Versus the Desirability of Expertise: Seeking a Common Standard for Support Professions in Sport. Sports Medicine, 45(1). The article is available here.
Cronbach, L.J., (1971). ‘Test Validation’ in Thorndike, R.L. (ed.) Educational Measurement. 2nd. Edn. Washington DC: American Council on Education, pp. 443-507.

Acknowledgement

Thanks to Lawrie Woodman for providing useful feedback.

Innovations in Coach Development

Toby Doyle

Community Cricket National Coach Development Manager, New Zealand Cricket

In this series we feature innovative initiatives in coach learning and development. We will see examples of the work of coach developers who have taken their sport or their own practice into new territory.

Innovation requires putting new ideas and methods into practice by looking at current practice with fresh eyes. New assumptions that underpin new mental models are at the core of innovation.

This post by Toby Doyle shows how a person-centred approach to coach development that is focussed on a strong practical component where developing coaches receive lots of support can provide a rich developmental experience for coaches.

WHAT WAS THE CATALYST FOR CHANGE?

Examination of data

We studied how many coaches who engaged with our previous qualification-centred coach framework, and only 20% of coaches who begun learning were going onto fully complete qualifications (with only a small percentage then requesting their certificate).
This led us to believe that our learning system was currently catering for a small portion of community coaches within our sport.

2. Consultation and research

When re-designing our coach learning framework we involved key regional coach development leads whose experience with working with coaches in their communities helped to inform what the framework would look like, as well as the critical skills/knowledge that coaches needed to know/do at each different coaching level. Coupled with this, we took time to understand learning frameworks from other sports and industries.

THE DEVELOPMENT of a NEW COACH LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT MENTAL MODEL

From our work and research we landed on some key mental models to help us shape our learning framework:

Development is continuous rather than episodic.
Development is self driven and not dictated.
Mastery is the objective. Not qualifications.
The emphasis is on just-in-time learning, as opposed to just-in-case learning.
Opportunities & resource are made available to all.
Coaches choose from a buffet of options rather than a set menu.
70/20/10 – remember how development occurs (on-the-job learning > social interactions > formal learning)

WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE IN PRACTICE

In the place of assessment during a course/workshop, we’ve put in coaching observations as a mandatory requirement for coaches wanting to receive a qualification. These look like:

Learning is centred around the coach and their context.
There is a deliberate emphasis on the personal development for the coach, rather than their competence against a set criteria.
Data is gathered (what happened) then reflective conversation around this follow.
The coach developer threads any learning/focus points from the workshop into conversations.
The focus from the conversation is on the ‘what next’ with clear ongoing objectives.
Conversations may also lead to a focus on the coach’s development following the observation.

Along with this, within our face-to-face practical sessions coaches are given micro-coaching opportunities and coach developers will conduct reflective conversations with coaches on how they conducted these micro-coaching sessions – GET THE COACHES COACHING!

HOW IS IT GOING 24 MONTHS DOWN THE TRACK? LESSONS LEARNED?

This last season we’ve seen over triple the amount of online learning module completions through our online learning portal and over double the amount of attendances to virtual learning sessions (webinars). This points to a ‘buffet’ style learning offering to coaches becoming more normalized.
We are still normalising the shift of focus with those who aren’t directly ‘in the work’ but may be managing or responsible for those who are coach developers regionally.
Fully integrating people from regional associations into the change process meant we had little resistance to the proposed changes.
A lot of coach developers in our network are speaking to the deeper longitudinal impact of coach observation (either formal or informal), this has meant a shift to more of a focus on this type of work and less focus on delivering workshops.
Our modular system is progressively expanding and progressing – a positive spin off from having a buffet style approach (you can keep adjusting or adding to what you offer in the buffet pretty easily!) – Click here for a link to our modular system

Cricket NZ Toby Doyle

Coach Developer Profile

Kirsi Hämäläinen, PhD

Kirsi is a principal lecturer at Haaga-Helia University of Applied Sciences in Finland.
Her short career as a coach, has been followed by a long career as a coach developer and especially coach developers’ developer 😊.
Prior to her current role, Kirsi worked at the Finnish Olympic Committee responsible for Coach Development.
Her doctoral thesis was titled: An athlete and a coach in the world of sports: ethos, ideals, and education in athletes’ narratives. From athletes’ narratives she found five different ethos, which guide thinking and behaviour in sport.
She played volleyball and beach volley for many years. Her multisport childhood has enabled Kirsi to return to dressage, one of the equestrian disciplines. She enjoys the escape from everything that dressage provides.
What Kirsi most enjoys about dressage is the feeling that there is no bar to ongoing improvement, unlike many other physical pursuits. She describes how important the cooperation and bond with the horse is. She says, “there may be challenges but the moments when is all comes together are indescribable”.

HOW DID YOU GET INTO the COACH DEVELOPER ROLE?

Coach development has been a key part of my entire career. As is often the case, serendipity played an important role. I was a student at university and during the summer holidays the phone rang. I was asked to work at a sports institute to teach one short course. Of course, I went because I had just wasted all my money on traveling in Europe!
I stayed at the sport institute (for 15 years!) and was given responsibility for various types of coach education.

MY COACH DEVELOPER PHILOSOHY

Over the years my idea has changed from planning the content and materials into planning the learning. I think we need to give the coaches a learner-centred learning experience.

Also, I used to think it was OK if the coaches felt they had only mastered bits of the course. That it was acceptable if coaches left a course feeling uncertain, knowing that any gaps would be filled through continuous learning. I now feel that it is important for coaches to achieve mastery in sufficient areas to leave the course feeling confident that they can do the job.

It is important for coaches to achieve mastery in sufficient areas to leave the course feeling confident that they can do the job.

BEST PART ABOUT the ROLE

The student coaches and co-workers and the joy of learning together.

SUPPORT for COACHES and COACH DEVELOPERS

In my current job at the university, I mainly teach master’s students.

In our system (Applied University), you only apply for the master’s degree after a few years of work experience as a coach or coach related job. So, the students are relatively experienced and in important positions in their working life. Learning together with them is really rewarding.

I used to work in the Olympic Committee and was responsible for coach development. I led the network of coach developers, and it has been one of the top things in my working life. We achieved a lot.

I have held numerous positions of trust where I have been able to influence coaching and coaching skills. The most important is certainly being a member of the International Council for Coaching Excellence board (ICCE), and my involvement with numerous ICCE projects over the years.

It has also been great to be involved in the activities of Finnish Coaches Association.

IF I HAD MORE RESOURCES

If I won the lottery, I would establish a foundation to support sports research. Its funding in Finland is too low.

And if I could make laws, I would make coach education free. Finland is a country of free education. Most coaches are volunteers, and yet we have created a system where coach training costs money and some coaches pay to be able to do their volunteer work better.

DO YOU WORK in PARTNERSHIP with OTHER COACH DEVELOPERS?

This is the pepper and the salt in my job. We have a great team at the university, and I still work with the people from my previous job at the Olympic committee. AND the international network within ICCE has been a big part of my life for 30 years.

HIGHLIGHTS and CHALLENGES

I am especially proud of these:

Building the coach developer Network in Finland when I worked at the Finnish Olympic Committee.
Development of ICCE activities over the years
The work for developing coaching culture and respect for coaches – baby steps and some bigger ones.
The students and co-workers excelling in their jobs.

DO YOU HAVE a MENTOR?

Several people have helped me during my career. Two times I have been in a professional guidance process and that has been very useful.

I also have some mutual mentoring relationships. One of them is Gene, who has given me food for thinking for several years.

MY TOP 4 COACH DEVELOPER TIPS

Focus on “how”. Choose learning methods that develop different ‘meta skills’ in the participants. That is, the ability to apply a range of deep-thinking skills. These include reflecting on their coaching and the self-regulation of their thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. Other important ‘meta skills’ include thinking skills, knowledge seeking, analysis skills, development skills and assessment skills. These might be even more important than the content in the long run.
How do you want the coaches to work with the athletes? Give them experience and work with them to nurture and refine that experience. If you want them to be athlete centred – be coach centred.
Less is more. If they master something well – that is a bigger achievement than if they have a big bag full of material they never can use.
Good questions are so critical and yet so difficult to find. It is way more demanding to find good questions than answers. Reflect on your coaching experience with the view to developing a toolkit of useful questions.

Kirsi Hämäläinen

Coach Developer Profile

Megan Moss

Megan Moss aims to be a revolutionist.

As the owner of a gymnastics club in Canberra, Australia, that employs over 60 coaches, Megan is determined to revolutionise coaching in the sport of gymnastics to provide an environment that is participant centric and where the values of the club are at the forefront of everything the coaches do.

Starting her coaching career at the age of 12 in the sport of hockey, Megan found a passion for sharing the joy of sports participation early and has coached in hockey, dance and gymnastics for over 30 years.

Having experienced a variety of coaching methods and approaches in her own sporting career,
Megan quickly established the impact a coach can have on a participant’s motivation and long-term participation in sport. Her experiences shaped the coach she is today that is focused on inclusion, fun and engagement.

She is a master in group management and loves using analogies in coaching to enhance understanding, learning and engagement of her participants.
She leads a team of over 60 coaches in her club where she aims to impart her positive, inclusive approach to coaching and leads the training and development of the coaching team at Gungahlin Gymnastics.

HOW DID YOU GET INTO THE CD ROLE?

"It starts with a love story!

It starts with a love story! I met my husband Joel, a former Australian representative gymnast, in year 11 at school and we joked that one day we would open our own gymnastics club.

With life’s journey, that joke became a reality in early 2015 when we made the leap and decided to open Gungahlin Gymnastics.

From day one, we knew that we wanted to deliver the sport of gymnastics differently. We set our values early and aimed to deliver gymnastics, in all its forms, in a FUN and positive environment. Initially we started with just Joel and I coaching and 16 classes on our timetable.

The club took off quickly and we employed our first coach to work with us within 12 weeks of opening due to the strong demand. It has been a roller coaster since then and we now have just over 1500 gymnasts in the club and over 60 coaches.

I lead the coach development and training aspects of the business and this is an area I love, creating the next generation of coaches delivering gymnastics “the Gungahlin way”.

BEST PARTS ABOUT THE ROLE

Without a doubt seeing my coaching team engaged and enjoying their role is the best part.

Coaching kids is not an easy gig, we get kids at their best and their worst and seeing my team adapt their coaching and work so hard to engage their participants and keep it fun is so rewarding.

My coaches for the most part are young students, most of whom might not become career coaches however when departing their role with us, leave with skills that will serve them in so many ways. I get to see them grow as individuals while sharing the joy they have for the sport of gymnastics with the next generation.

SUPPORT FOR COACHES

We operate in a sport that is very structured and focused on pathways and compliance in terms of what you can coach and competitive gymnastics.

I respect that part of the sport however my support for my coaches extends well beyond a formal coaching accreditation and is focused more on our values, living those values as a coach and coaching to create an environment that is always fun and positive.

We do a lot of work with our coaching team on the soft skills of coaching, how you interact with your participants, what engaged coaching looks like in practice and how you create the right environment to enable the fun while balancing the needs of diverse groups.

Given we operate across two facilities, and I can’t be in two places at once, I have a team of Floor Managers who monitor things on the floor and report each day on how coaches are going and if they need more training or support in certain aspects of their coaching.

These insights provide me with the topics that form part of our twice yearly all staff workshops where we bring the whole team together to work on challenges and scenarios to further develop the soft skills of the team.

I also use this feedback to engage directly with individual coaches to provide more targeted support as required to help them be the best coach they can be.

IF YOU HAD MORE RESOURCES

Time is my most challenging resource – running a small business is very challenging and I wish I had more time to dedicate to coach development. If I had all the time in the world, my focus would be on more explicit coaching practices to ensure development and progression of participants and specialised training for my staff in handling participants with additional needs.

DO YOU WORK IN PARTNERSHIP WITH OTHER CDs?

I have working alongside me two full time staff who are also qualified Club Coach Educators who help me deliver training and workshops. Their expertise is in differing areas to my expertise so we complement each other well.

I also collaborate with lots of people outside of our sport to hear what others are doing, to discuss challenges and to network and hear best practice operations to learn more. The learning for me never stops!

DO YOU HAVE A MENTOR?

I don’t have a formal mentor for the coach development side of my role however I engage with some outstanding people in the field like Gene Schembri to further my learning and seek support.

I have a general life mentor in my big sister who is my biggest cheerleader and who is the one that gives me pep talks when I am experiencing imposter syndrome.

MY TOP 5 COACH DEV TIPS

Tell the story, the story of the impact positive coaching can have on a participant and the coaches’ role in this.
Encourage coaches to reflect on coaches or teachers they have had that brought out their best and how those coaches delivered lessons and training to do that and how they can do the same.
Don’t take it too seriously – at the end of the day, we are dealing with kids sport. Sport is meant to be fun and the goal should always be engagement and retention. Don’t lose sight of the fact this is kids sport.
Learn the soft skills more than the technical skills and always stay connected to the grassroots. It is very easy to coach high level athletes who know what to do, you truly earn and maintain your coaching stripes coaching in the grassroots.
Never stop learning. Always seek out new information, especially from outside your sport and continue to learn and develop as a coach developer and in your own coaching.

Megan Moss

Coach Developer Profile

Toby Doyle

Toby Doyle, Community Cricket National Coach Development Manager, has played a key role in changing the way community coaches in New Zealand are prepared for their role. This includes receiving frequent personalised guidance from coach developers in real-world settings.

In this approach mastery is favoured over covering the curriculum. Observation, guidance, and support replace critique and ticking off a skills list. The learning coach’s context and their individual needs shape the support offered.

The NZ Cricket model of learning and development has been well received by coaches, the majority of whom have little interest in accreditation or being assessed. Quality is assured by the high level of personalised support that is afforded each coach.

Toby Doyle’s current role is the Community Cricket National Coach Development Manager at New Zealand Cricket. His path has included playing, coaching, developing coaches, and even training other coach developers.

Toby is deeply passionate about enabling quality coaching in community sports. His learning journey reflects a non-linear path, driven by a commitment and reflection to continuous improvement. Beyond his professional life, Toby is a father of three young children, and his fiancée, Hannah, shares his passion for coaching and sport. With his cricket playing days behind him, Toby now finds joy in playing the odd game of golf.

Toby has been fortunate to participate in the International Cricket Council’s Master Educator Program and has served as a trainer in the latest iteration of Sport New Zealand’s Coaching For Impact program.

How did you get into the Coach Development role?

I transitioned into a Coach Development (CD) role from my previous position as a Development Manager at Canterbury Country Cricket Association (which I was in for 7 years). This role required me to deliver key coach development initiatives for New Zealand Cricket, which involved engaging with the community to facilitate learning and support for community coaches.

CD philosophy

Empower individuals to become the best versions of themselves through a holistic and strength-based approach.

Best parts about the role

As the Community Coach Development Manager with New Zealand Cricket, I have the opportunity to nurture the potential in others—both coaches and coach developers. I am constantly seeking ways to improve and refine our coach development system and processes within New Zealand cricket.

Support for coaches

My work focuses on three key domains: the NZC Coach Learning System, the NZC Coach Developer Network, and Women in Coaching within Cricket.

Coach Learning System: Over the past decade, the NZC Coach Learning System has evolved from a linear, assessment-driven model to a modular system focused on ‘just in time’ learning. This shift recognizes that most of our coaching population consists of volunteer parents who seek practical information rather than formal qualifications.
Coach Developer Network: We currently have 90 active coach developers supporting approximately 3,000 coaches. My role involves providing leadership, mentorship, and ongoing professional development for these coach developers. This includes facilitating communities of practice and guiding them through a rigorous plan-do-review process centred around their regional coach development plans.
Women in Coaching: With 13% of our registered coaches being female, increasing this percentage is a major focus for New Zealand Cricket. We are working to create inclusive and safe spaces for female coaches at the grassroots level. Additionally, we offer a centralized program called ‘Pathway to Performance’ to equip aspiring female coaches with the skills, tools, and knowledge needed to advance in their coaching careers.

If I had more resources

I would place a coach developer in every club and secondary school across New Zealand.

Additionally, I would develop an AI-driven coaching app to provide individualized support to coaches in real-time.

Do you work in partnership with other coach developers?

Yes, I collaborate extensively with coach development leaders from other sports both within New Zealand and internationally. Currently, we are partnering with New Zealand Hockey to deliver a trainer program aimed at developing coach developer trainers.

My role as a Master Educator with the International Cricket Council has also allowed me to build valuable networks with global coach development leaders.

Recently, I have been involved as a trainer/facilitator in the Sport New Zealand Coaching for Impact program, which is designed to develop youth and secondary school coaches. I have also assisted New Zealand Rugby in facilitating a World Rugby Educator course to develop new coach developers in a rugby context.

Highlights and challenges

The most rewarding aspect of my role is seeing others thrive and grow. I learn a great deal from observing other coaches, coach developers, and trainers in action. Being part of the recent adaptations to our learning system, aligning it with 21st-century andragogy principles, has been a significant achievement.

A continual challenge is effectively communicating the impact of coach development work to decision-makers, ensuring they recognize its importance.

“The most rewarding aspect of my role is seeing others thrive and grow.

Do you have a mentor?

Yes, I have a mentor who helps me continue to learn, reflect, and grow in my leadership role.

TOP 4 COACH DEVELOPER TIPS

Discover the coach’s motivation or ‘why’ and link any learning and development back to this
Be your authentic self — skilfully
Focus on strengths rather than gaps
Reflection is the secret sauce to learning

NZ Cricket Toby Doyle

What does assessment look like in your sport?

This post accompanies a session on assessment at the Australian Sports Commission 2025 Coaching and Officiating Conference in Geelong that I had the pleasure in co-facilitating.

It was a team effort. A big thanks to Shaun McEachin from Squash, Sally Wiseman from Pony Club and Tom Finch from the ASC.

What follows are four questions for designers of learning and development programs to consider. Behind these questions is the assumption that assessment should be at the core of those design decisions and not an add on.

1. VOLUNTEERS

In Australia, as in a number of other countries, volunteers make up the majority of the coaching workforce. In Australia, entry level qualifications make up between 80 and 90% of the accreditations or other qualifications.

A smaller number of sports have a tradition of full-time and part-time paid coaches. This can influence the type of training offered to coaches. The risk profile of a sport can also influences the type of training required of coaches.

The ASC did some research (Community Coach Insights, 2015) that showed a cohort of volunteers (the ‘Happy Helpers’) do not believe they need general coaching principles, were not seeking accreditation and therefore were not in need of assessment.

Questions

1. What kind of assessment (if any) is appropriate for volunteers in your sport?

2. If your sport requires assessment of entry level coaches, what form should it take?

2. HOW DO WE KNOW WHAT TO ASSESS / TEACH?

When the course is crowded (with a lot to cover) everything is important, and nothing is important.

This is a classic case of never having enough time to consolidate the learning because we have to ‘cover the curriculum’.

So, what can we do?

Mastery vs Qualifications

One solution is to adopt a mastery approach as opposed to a ‘cover the curriculum approach’. In the former, covering fewer things in more depth takes precedence over covering everything superficially. A mastery approach is more concerned with giving the coach sufficient time and guidance to develop skills that last into the future.

A mastery approach is further enhanced when the learning is relevant to the coach and comes out of a practice context.

So, what content gets priority treatment?

What is covered can be prioritised in different ways. For example, what is NICE to know knowledge versus what is NEED to know knowledge? Nice to know information may be explored informally by the coach in their own time. Do you think that is true for need to know knowledge?

A more precise approach to classification is shown below:

Access the SOLO taxonomy here.

Course safety valves – Don’t cover everything during the course!

Many introductory and intermediate courses are a compromise between comprehensiveness and pragmatism. The time coaches are willing to spend at a course and the resources to deliver a course are two factors that influence design choices.

Alternatives for reducing the amount of content to cover include:

Making information available through the web
Allowing clubs to specify their own requirements. For example, clothing requirements. If there is a safety issue regarding clothing / jewellery etc., then this could be covered in the course.
Continuing professional development / updating requirements
Pre- or co-requisite courses. For example, a requirement to complete the ASC’s Community Coaching – Essential Skills course.

Question

What are your criteria for deciding what content to cover and assess?

3. ASSESSMENT CHECKLISTS: USEFUL OR NOT?

Courses based on a competency-based training (CBT) design break up coaching into about 4-6 large chunks (units of competency). Each of these units is further sub-divided into smaller bits (elements of competency).

This approach often leads to assessment with tedious checklists that require each item on the list to be ticked off.

For example, checklists for coaching behaviours such as demonstrations, instruction, observation, or feedback might be used.

The checklist approach can easily result in not paying sufficient attention to the coaching context. Another problem, even if the observation of a coach is taken in context, is that a narrow focus may miss the ‘big picture’. For example, a ‘perfect’ demonstration might have been presented, but we could ask was a demonstration the best option at that time?

In another post we have discussed how a narrow assessment focus can give us a reliable result but one that doesn’t inform us about the ability of a coach to coach. That is, the problem of reliable but not valid assessment inferences.

Question

Do you assess holistically (looking at the whole coaching process), or do you assess isolated individual parts?

4. DIFFERENT MODELS OF LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT

What are the principles that underpin your approach to coach learning and development?

Your choice of principles provides the building blocks of your MENTAL MODEL. It guides the way you deliver coach education. The mental model that underpins a course may be unique with a non-traditional approach to coach learning.

For example, Andy Rogers from Sport NZ along with two authors from NSOs have written (see drop down #3) about an approach that replaces assessment and critique with observation, support, and guidance. The NZ model is a highly personalised coach-centred approach to learning and development.

In this alternative approach, a coach developer observes, listens, questions, and draws inferences which form the basis of a dialogue between coach and CD.

The CD chooses a response that suits the context: a suggestion, a collaborative approach to problem solving, further questions, or a simple acknowledgement of progress. The coach in this model may initiate the conversation.

This ‘partnership’ in learning is frequent and ongoing throughout the course. Lots of ‘mini assessments’ replace an end of course summative assessment.

This is ASSESSMENT WITHOUT ASSESSMENT!

Question

What are the principles that form the basis of your mental model for designing and delivering courses?

PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT

Liam McCarthy et al who has been leading some international work on assessment has proposed 5 principles of assessment. Four of them are shown here. The fifth is transparency.

1. DEEP INTEGRATION

Teaching, learning and assessment should be deeply integrated. As opposed to a period of learning that is followed by assessment.

2. AUTHENTIC

Assessment activities should be ‘authentic’. That is, related to what coaches actually do. The assessment should be:

Practice based
Take place in context that is relevant to the coach

3. COLLABORATIVE

CD and coaches work together. Peers are seen as a resource for each other.

4. METACOGNITIVE

Assessment plays a role in coaches developing their skills of reflection and the ability to self-monitor their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.

Question

To what extent are these principles embedded into your course design?

REFERENCE

McCarthy, L., Vangrunderbeek, H., & Piggot, D. (2022). Principles of good assessment practice in coach education: An initial proposal. International Sports Coaching Journal, 9(2), 252-262.

Geelong Conference

My Brain is Full – How Memory Works

Learning takes place when information in our conscious thinking is transferred to long-term memory. Organising these memories, through a network of neural connections, builds our capacity to tackle novel and unpredictable situations.

These connections can be varied and may include visual, auditory, emotional, or kinaesthetic memories.

Understanding how our memories are formed helps us to understand the differences in performance between novices and experts. It also guides the coach and coach developer in designing instructional strategies. That is, how to be a more effective teacher.

My brain is full!

In a favourite Gary Larson cartoon, teacher Mr Osborne at the front of his class glances over his left shoulder. A student has his hand up. The student asks: “Mr Osborne, may I be excused? My brain is full.” You can see the cartoon by here.

Apart from being pretty funny, this cartoon is a good catalyst for a discussion about how CDs and coaches can effectively get the message across. It also invites us to challenge simplistic notions that teaching is just about transmitting information with the hope that is sticks. Telling is not teaching.

(BTW, telling is not the same as explicit instruction. But that is another article).

What are you thinking right now?

Back to the cartoon. The student’s long-term memory (LTM) has plenty of unused capacity. No problem there. The problem is most likely an overloaded working memory (WM).

Working memory is whatever is held in your consciousness at any given moment. Understanding working memory is the key to learning.

Working memory

This is your memory for the present moment. It is a limited and short-lived holding space in your prefrontal cortex for the sights, sounds, smells, tastes, emotions, and language of right now - working to keep whatever you just experienced and paid attention to only long enough to use it or not.

Lisa Genova, p38.

Pay attention!

When attention is narrowly focussed thinking is unlikely to be overwhelmed by extraneous things in the environment. (See the diagram below).

When too many distractions not relevant to the immediate learning are present, cognitive overload occurs. Too much mental effort is required to make sense of things. Working memory is ‘stretched’ beyond its limits – it becomes overloaded.

To learn something, we have to notice things. Noticing requires us to do something with all the sensory information the brain receives. This requires paying attention. That is, fine tuning our thinking to actively process specific information in the environment while ignoring other sensory input.

Apart from unimportant things in the environment, there is lots going on in our heads to ignore: self-talk, reliving conversations, to-do lists, random thoughts … the monkey mind.

The brain can receive and process sensory information, like watching an athlete perform a skill BUT unless there is a deliberate and focussed attention to what is being perceived “the activated neurons will not be linked, and memory will not be formed.” (1, p27).

“PAY ATTENTION!”. The command is a futile one unless the learner is receptive to whatever attention is being drawn to.

We are attentive to things that are meaningful and interesting. Something that is surprising, humorous or resonates with us emotionally will grab our attention and open the gate to learning.

Our brain’s default setting is not to be attentive. We have to work at it. This means the CD or coach needs to create an environment favourable to learning and to choose learning experiences that are interesting and meaningful to the learner.

Mr OSBORNE’S CLASS. So, even if Mr Osborne’s teaching practice is good, his student with a ‘full brain’ may have no interest in the topic and no interest in paying attention.

We have to know stuff to learn

“New knowledge can only be understood if it is linked to what the student already knows.”

Mike Bell

The more links the better. Using multiple senses (multi-sensory) and emotions makes the memories easier to recall and less likely to be forgotten.

When prior knowledge is retrieved, more than a single piece of information is accessed.

Information in the brain is not stored in an isolated manner, like a piece of information on a computer hard drive. It is stored along with other information and emotions from all the senses. A memory is a network of connections.

Back to Mr Osborne's class

Back to our student in Mr Osborne’s class. Numerous things could be interfering with the student’s ability to process what he is seeing and hearing from Mr Osborne.

A run-in with a peer may have led to our student dwelling on an earlier incident. The student may be dealing with something from home. Perhaps he didn’t complete his pre-class work. Essential prior knowledge may be absent. Or Mr Osborne, may be overwhelming the class with too much information and at the wrong level. Or maybe the class just needs a short brain break and the student with his hand up is expressing what others are feeling.

The student’s WM is working overtime, and nothing is making sense. Extraneous thoughts, some possibly emotionally charged, compete for WM space. We have all been there!

Coaching young participants

The example of Mr Osborne’s class is not uncommon in our everyday coaching.

We have all experienced working with young participants where one or more of them come to training frazzled. It may take us 10 or more minutes into our ‘perfect’ session plan before we realise things are not going to plan. Our strategies for getting participants to focus on what matters may be good.
But something in the lead up to training has emotionally charged one or more participants.

What we might want participants to hold in WM clashes with what is already there. ‘Reading the play’ and adapting is a key coaching skill. In our example, the change to the plan may have to be significant.

CD & Coach Take-outs

Here are some strategies adapted from Mike Bell (2):

Develop session routines and habits. For CDs teaching or coaches working with athletes, routines should be taught and practised to avoid wasting time and clogging up WM.
Convey information in smaller chunks.
Connect new information to prior knowledge by linking instructions and new information to things that are already part of the learner’s existing knowledge or everyday experience.

COACHES

Coaches should keep cues simple and short (KISS – keep it simple and short)
Use similes and analogies to help participants connect more complex ideas with things that are familiar in everyday life.
Arrange equipment and the playing / training area in ways that reduces the amount of cognitive processing that is required (constraints-based approach). This may reduce the need for verbal instruction or eliminate it altogether.

COACH DEVELOPERS

Use multi-sensory strategies (also relevant to coaching)
Focus attention with content that is interesting, meaningful, surprising, humorous or tugs at our emotional heart strings
Use active learning strategies (this will call on different sensory strategies such as talking with peers and physically moving – these have the potential to reduce cognitive load)
Link abstract ideas to concrete analogies.

FIG. HOW MEMORY WORKS

In this final figure more detail has been added. Procedural knowledge enables us to type, tie our shoe laces or execute a skill or activity in sport. Memory is not just about ‘book learning’ – it is also at the centre of doing things physically.

References

Genova, Lisa, (2021). Remember. The Science of Memory and the Art of Forgetting. Simon Schuster.
Bell, Mike. (2021). The Fundamentals of Teaching. Routledge.

A novice is not a little expert – Implications for coach developers

Introduction

The way information is organised in the brains of novices and experts is different. Expert coaches read situations at a deeper level than do novice coaches. Experts see the underlying structures. Novices see the superficial detail.

This has important implications for the way coach developers support the development of coaches in their early stages of learning.

The coach developer’s dilemma

Don’t expect novice coaches to learn by doing what expert coaches do.

It is popular to say coaching is complex, non-linear, and unpredictable. This requires coaches to exercise professional judgement and decision-making skills. Coaching requires the management of a range of emotional and physical states, participant skill levels, participant anxiety and team dynamics that may be less than ideal. All without simple stock remedies.

For the coach developer working with novice and intermediate coaches, this snapshot of coaching presents significant challenges. A more experienced coach when asked will this or that work, may well say, “it depends”, highlighting the unpredictable nature of coaching. Implying that no single piece of advice can be universally applied.
This creates a dilemma for the CD. Throwing coaches into complex decision making too early in their development may be counterproductive. We have to take a short detour to see why.

Novices are not little experts

The cognitive (thinking) processes that experts use are different from those used by novices. In short, experts think differently from novices. This means that developing skills and knowledge early in a coach’s development is fundamentally different from learning at a later stage of the coach’s development.

“It’s not just that students know less than experts, it’s also that what they know is organised differently in their memory.” (1, p128)

This fundamental difference between novice and expert coaches means that as CDs we have to be aware of the curse of knowledge – the idea that experts forget how difficult learning may be in the early stages, and what is required to effectively learn.

According to the cognitive scientist Daniel Willingham there are important novice / expert differences (1). Some of his points are reproduced here:

• Experts show better transfer to similar domains than novices do.
• Even if novices have the same knowledge as experts, experts can access the right information with greater speed and accuracy.
• Experts are better able to single out important details, produce sensible solutions, and transfer their knowledge to similar domains.
• The extensive experience (and knowledge) of experts means that they will be able to transfer information more efficiently from working memory to long-term memory. This includes deriving benefits from practice more efficiently than novices.
• The information in the memory of experts is organised differently from the information in a novice’s long-term memory.
• Novices think in terms of surface features, whereas experts think in terms of functions, or deep structure.

Strategies for novice / intermediate coaches

Armed with these insights from cognitive science, we can plan for the learning experiences that are likely to be more successful for coaches at the beginning of their learning journey. We have touched on some of these strategies above.
Here is a summary of strategies for novice and intermediate coach learning consistent with the insights above (2):

• Be clear about where coaches are starting from (prior knowledge and skills). Build from there.
• Use learning experiences that are consistent with the working memory capacities of the coaches.
• Use graphics or other visual techniques to show coaches the big picture – where they are going and how things connect to each other.
• Use multi-sensory teaching strategies (visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, tactile).
• Provide modelling / demonstrations and worked examples.
• Build on surface knowledge by challenging coaches with thinking tasks (problem solving, application etc).
• Provide opportunities for collaboration.
• Provide feedback / feed forward, ask questions, collaborate on next steps.
• Provide ample opportunities for spaced practice (practice in small doses spread out over time).

Scaffold support & fade guidance

A learner-centred approach is one where coaches are provided opportunities to take responsibility for their own learning.

Helping learners take more responsibility for their own learning can be developed over time. This approach is summarised in the graphic below (3,4)

The model in a nutshell:

I DO > WE DO > YOU DO

A closer look at the model

• The purpose of the model is to help CDs choose learning experiences that consider where coaches are on the novice – expert spectrum.
• Novices have less knowledge, skills & experience, so more guidance is required.
• Guidance is reduced as coaches develop more expertise (called the guidance fading effect).
• Too much information too early will confuse coaches (working memory overload), just as too little guidance will have the same effect.
• The model is not a recipe for CDs or coaches. That is, be prepared to go back a step or two to progress at a later date. Sometimes another tack altogether will be needed.
• Even experts are ‘novices’ for some of the time (e.g., learning a new technology). The difference compared with novices is the greater experience & knowledge of experts, means it will be easier for them to relate to information in long-term memory & to see how new knowledge can be applied.
• A community coach in their context can be just as ‘expert’ as a performance coach. Just different types of expertise.
• The model assumes there is a favourable climate for learning and the learners are sufficiently interested, motivated & have the required prior knowledge.

Take outs

• Coaching is often described as complex, non-linear, and unpredictable.
• This calls for coaches to have the skills to make decisions and exercise judgement in the face of uncertainty. These are higher-order thinking skills.
• These higher order skills need to be taught in a coaching context and not in isolation.
• So called twenty first century skills such as problem solving, critical thinking, creativity and communication skills are domain specific. That is, to solve a problem in coaching, the coach needs to build up mental models (schemata) through actual coaching experience.
• Until coaches have enough relevant foundational knowledge and skills it would be counter-productive to throw a coach in their early stages of learning into situations where difficult decision making is required.
• Experts think differently from novices. Experts are better able to single out important details, produce sensible solutions, and transfer their knowledge to similar domains.
• Some higher-level coaching exposure beyond the current capabilities of a coach may have some motivational value for coaches even if actual learning is minimal.
• Understanding novice / expert differences, and how they relate to the choice of learning experiences and instructional strategies is important for CDs to know.
• Giving coaches too much independence from the start is not a good way to develop independent coaches!

Editors: Lawrie Woodman, Andrea Woodburn, Melanie Schembri-Waite

References & notes

1. Willingham, Daniel T. (2009). Why Don’t Students Like School? (A cognitive scientist answers questions about how the mind works and what it means for the classroom), Jossey-Bass.

The quote at the top of the post is adapted from a heading on p143.

2. Bell, Mike. (2021). The Fundamentals of Teaching. (A five-step model to put the research evidence into practice). London and New York: Routledge.

Mike Bell reviewed several lists of effective teaching methods including those that use the new understandings of the ‘brain and learning’. He developed his own list based on identifying the common elements of good teaching practices. I have adapted his final list.

3. Busch, Bradley, Watson, Edward, Bogatchek, Ludmila. (2023). Teaching and Learning Illuminated. London and New York: Routledge.

The graphic depicting guidance fading is based on what is technically known as the expertise reversal effect. That is giving an expert too much information when ideas and motor patterns are well developed is counterproductive. The ideas captured in the graphic are based on concepts from cognitive psychology.

A SCHEMA is a network of neurons in long-term memory. Schemata are available for understanding the environment and new ideas.

4. Fisher, Douglas, Frey, Nancy (2013). Engaging the Adolescent Learner, Gradual Release of Responsibility Instructional Framework. International Reading Association. See HERE.

Cognitive load Guidance fading Novice-Expert Working memory

Coach Developer Profile

Joan Yuliani

Joan Yuliani wears many hats—a netball player, an international official, a coach, and a coach developer. These roles reflect her deep passion and love for netball.

With over 20 years of coaching experience, she works with Singapore’s sports governing body, Sport Singapore, focusing on coaching development within CoachSG. In her free time, she volunteers with Netball Singapore as a coach developer. She feels blessed to be able to do what she loves.

HOW DID YOU GET INTO THE CD ROLE?

I got into the CD role by accident! I came across a course for coaching course presenters and decided to give it a try. I gained as much experience as I could, and eventually, my association, Netball Singapore, nominated me for an ICCE course. It’s been an incredible experience so far!

CD PHILOSOPHY

My philosophy is to always be open to challenges and to being challenged.

I love creating and being part of the process, as it fosters growth opportunities. I’m constantly asking, ‘Is there a way to do this better?’ and responding with, ‘Yeah, let’s talk about it!’ or ‘I bet we can learn more if we try it this way.’ I really enjoy this kind of engagement, where we push ourselves to improve.

BEST PARTS ABOUT THE ROLE

I love meeting people and hearing their stories about why they’re passionate about sport. Everyone’s personal experiences offer so much to learn from, and it really fuels my own passion for what I do.

SUPPORT FOR COACHES

My support for coaches operates on a couple of layers.

First, I work with my national sports association to organize workshops aimed at further developing coaches’ skills.

On another layer, I support a group of coaches who are learning to become Coach Developers (CDs). I help them develop their skills in facilitation and coaching conversations. I’m currently supporting their overseas learning journey – mainly for them to hear other perspectives, to explore and to come back refreshed and inspired. I often use the word ‘stretch’ to describe my approach, where I nudge them to engage in cross-sport sharing and workshops to further develop their presentation skills and being comfortable engaging with different people.

My goal is to help them provide an all-round experience that helps being a Coach Developer and provide platforms for them to share their experiences. These coaches have so much to offer, but often not enough opportunities to do so.

IF YOU HAD MORE RESOURCES

If I had more resources, I’d probably take a step back to assess the broader needs of coaches and coach developers. I’d spend more time on the ground, really understanding their development needs, and then create something specifically tailored for them.

DO YOU WORK IN PARTNERSHIP WITH OTHER CDS?

I often do! Whether it’s within the same sport or across different ones, I think it’s valuable to have a sounding board with someone from another sport. Hearing about their experiences, challenges, and learnings is incredibly insightful.

Nothing beats getting advice from peers as well. I often reach out to them, and they do the same with me. Sometimes, I invite them to my workshops and courses to hear their feedback on what I can do better, and I make time to do the same for them.

Over time, we’ve built a supportive network of like-minded individuals who are deeply passionate about sports, and I find that to be a huge relief.

HIGHLIGHTS AND CHALLENGES

I’m always on the lookout for people who are eager to be stretched and get involved in facilitating and learning. When I see the coaches I support speaking the same language— with the same vigor and passion—as they pass it on to other coaches, I’m incredibly proud of them. They start talking about how rewarding it is to be part of a beginner coach’s journey, mentoring others, and seeing those coaches get excited and eager to learn more.

That’s where the value truly multiplies. Coach Developers (CDs) are multipliers. What we advocate, our values, and the hours we put in all multiply across so many others.

DO YOU HAVE A MENTOR?

I don’t have a mentor, though I wish I did. However, we do have a strong support network. We help each other by offering advice, providing a listening ear, sharing new perspectives, and being there as friends to grab drinks with or bounce ideas off of. .

TOP 4 COACH DEV TIPS

Listen to understand.
Always be people-centric
Be keen to learn (even from the person you’re mentoring)
Have fun and be yourself
Get to know the person not the profession.

Joan Yuliani

An inconvenient proposition about learning: IT’S OK to TELL PEOPLE STUFF

The push – pull continuum

A pillar of many coach developer courses is the PUSH – PULL continuum – a way of characterising a range of different teaching approaches1. A similar idea is the TELL – ASK continuum. An Australian Sports Commission video 2 about the TELL – ASK continuum can be accessed HERE.

Pushing or telling is characterised as a traditional information-driven approach where the teacher curates, translates and communicates information (3). The responsibility for learning resides with the learner (athlete or coach).

In a learner-centred approach, learner and teacher work together. The teacher engineers an environment to promote learning. The emphasis is squarely on learning. High-level questions help to make thinking visible and make sense of learning. They help the learner to connect to prior knowledge and cluster new knowledge into larger concepts. Student explanations provide a similar role.

An additional potential advantage to the push-pull approach is that it reminds the CD or coach that they will need to adapt their teaching to the context and the needs of the learners.

Push – Pull Limitations

The push-pull or tell-ask concepts are useful provided it is understood that there is no right or wrong teaching approach that can be explained by the idea of a push-pull continuum. It is also important to not see push-pull as binaries. They are simply teaching approaches to be used in a flexible way along with other teaching strategies.

• Pushing or telling are imprecise terms often confused with the idea of someone talking for 40 minutes or more while the audience remains passive – possibly asleep (didactic lecturing). A didactic approach is not the same as explicit or direct teaching.
• Explicit (or direct) teaching includes some telling but in the context of setting clear learning intentions, indicating what ‘good looks like’, modelling, checking for understanding, guiding the practice and so on.
• The push-pull continuum is a useful reminder that different learning situations require solutions that are relevant to the moment. However, push-pull is not a precise guide for telling you when to push or pull. For example, it is not useful to say that pushing should never be used with an expert learner or an exploratory learning strategy or questioning approach should never be used with a novice learner.
• Push-pull is also not a useful tool for categorising different teaching roles such as instructor, teacher, facilitator, mentor etc. What these titles mean is arbitrary and imprecise and assumes that the roles can be accurately placed on the push-pull continuum. They can’t.

Addressing the limitations

Push – Pull shows us that there are different ways a coach or CD can offer guidance to a learner. The type of guidance offered depends on the context and the learner. The push – pull continuum is limited in informing us of the choices available for guidance. It is difficult to match a point on the push – pull continuum with a learner’s needs and use that to prescribe how much pushing, pulling or something else should be done.

In an earlier post, we looked at the Gradual Release of Responsibility model (GRR) – (ref 4) summarised by the graphic below. The graphic conveys the multiple ways a teacher and learner can work together. Guidance fades from top to bottom. GRR is not meant to convey a linear process – the amount of guidance may fluctuate depending on the circumstance.

A complementary approach to managing instructional guidance is to base the guidance on the following three factors shown in the graphic and explained below. The three factors help in the choice of the optimal guidance for different contexts.

• The TASK. Is the focus on surface knowledge such as knowing the three energy systems or knowing what emotional intelligence means? Or is it about the deep knowledge that is required to apply knowledge and skills and solve problems.

• The LEVEL of LEARNER EXPERTISE. What prior knowledge and skills does the learner possess?

• The INSTRUCTIONAL GOAL. This is an important factor in deciding whether there should be no guidance or minimal guidance versus a high level of guidance as in explicit instruction. Two instructional goals have been identified:

o Pre-instructional goals. Priming the learner for what is to come. Activating prior learning. Identifying knowledge gaps. Motivating the learner.
o Problem solving. For this goal, the aim is to enhance problem solving skills so the learner can apply knowledge and transfer it to new and unfamiliar situations. This requires the acquisition of more comprehensive mental models.

Slava Kalyuga (5) has developed the idea of these three factors as a basis for managing instructional guidance in an article in an open access book, In Their Own Words. The e-book is available here and is highly recommended. See page 122 for Slava’s informative article.

Whether instructor, teacher, or mentor, these three factors come into play. A word of caution though. Coaching is complex with many ‘moving parts’. Any prescriptive advice should be tempered with the coach’s (or CD’s) own judgement. This may mean doing something that doesn’t neatly fit a ‘textbook prescription’.

Take outs

• The Push – Pull continuum is shorthand for indicating there are different ways to offer guidance to learners.
• Implicit in the idea is that more pulling or asking is better because it is consistent with the idea of a more learner-centred approach to teaching.

• Use push – pull as a reminder to employ a variety of teaching/coaching approaches.

• Avoid black and white binary labelling. Pushing or telling can mean many things and can serve many useful purposes. At the wrong time or if overused, pushing can be counterproductive. Pulling or asking, likewise comes in many forms. There are pros and cons for this strategy too.

• Rather than putting teachers and learners into categories, understanding how to best manage guidance is a more productive approach.

• More and more emphasis in coaching and coach development is being placed on learner-centred approaches. More asking. More learner-voice. Opportunities for more learner choice when working with learners (coaches or athletes). These are aimed at producing greater learner independence and autonomy.

• There is no right way to teach or coach. What works in the researcher’s laboratory might not work in your ‘laboratory’ of the real world. This calls for understanding and empathy for different points of view and teaching/coaching styles. This idea is developed in an excellent podcast on The Sport Pysch Show (6).

• Avoid putting labels on teachers/coaches and learners or putting them on a continuum. A more useful approach starts with the learner’s needs and asking the following questions:

o What is the learning intention and what does ‘good’ look like?

o Is the learner a novice or an expert on the task at hand? What is their prior achievement?

o What is the nature of the task? (Task complexity – high or low or in between)

o What is the instructional goal – to prime and motivate prior to deeper learning or is it to develop problem solving skills?

Asking these questions is a reminder that CDs and coaches may play multiple roles ranging from providing explicit instruction, to being a mentor or supportive friend.

Context as always is important. Remember, it too can vary.

The coach or CD’s ‘override’ button is to be used when gut feeling indicates the learner may need something that fits the moment better than a more prescriptive approach.

Editors: Lawrie Woodman, Andrea Woodburn and Melanie Schembri-Waite.

References

Crisfield, P., Bales, J. (2024). International Coach Developer Framework, International Council for Coaching Excellence. Page 42.
Australian Sports Commission. Supporting Others Video Series.
Chew, S., (2023). The Culture of Teaching We Have Versus the Culture of Teaching We Need. In In Their Own Words (What Scholars and Teachers Want You to Know About Why and How to Apply the Science of Learning in Your Academic Setting. Division 2, American Psychological Association. Page 32.
Fisher, D. Effective Use of the Gradual Release of Responsibility Model.
Kalyuga, Slava. (2023). Task Complexity, Learner Expertise, and Instructional Goals in Managing Instructional Guidance. In In Their Own Words. Page 122-131. (See reference #3 above for access).
Cushion, C., Harvey, S. Cope, E. Sport Psych Show, Episode #227. (2023). A Flexible Approach to Coaching. Highly recommended for its common sense to approach to how learning works and its relevance to coaching.

Explicit instruction